The ups and downs of Russia's lunar program

The Luna program has experienced both successes and failures in its race to conquer Earth's natural satellite, most recently with the Luna 25 spacecraft crashing onto the lunar surface on August 20th.

Luna 9 was the first spacecraft to make a gentle landing on the Moon. Photo: Science Photo Library — Luna 9 was the first spacecraft to make a gentle landing on the Moon. Photo: *Science Photo Library*

The Apollo program marked America's victory in the race to the Moon in the 1960s, but the Soviet Union also achieved significant success with the Luna program, which ran from 1959 to the mid-1970s. This program included a series of unmanned missions such as orbiters, landers, surface rovers, and sample carriers, according to Astro .

The Luna program was one of two lunar exploration programs conducted by the Soviet Union. Luna missions were designed to gather information about the Moon and its environment, not only for scientific research but also to plan manned lunar flights.

According to LPI , despite numerous ups and downs and setbacks in advancing a manned mission to Earth's natural satellite, the Luna program achieved many "firsts." These included the first spacecraft to fly past the Moon, the first impact on the Moon, the first photograph of the far side, the first gentle landing, the first lunar satellite, the first analysis of lunar soil, the first mission to bring samples back to Earth, and the first deployment of a rover. These missions also successfully conducted remote sensing and imaging of the Moon, operated two robots on the celestial body's surface, and brought back three sets of soil and rock samples.

Early self-driving spacecraft

The former Soviet Union began its lunar mission in 1959. On January 2, 1959, the Soviet Union launched Luna 1 on a trajectory to collide with the lunar surface. However, the spacecraft deviated by 5,000 km and entered solar orbit.

This goal became a reality nine months later with the launch of Luna 2 on September 12 of the same year. The 390 kg probe crashed directly into the lunar surface about 800 km north of the Moon's center. This mission marked the first time a man-made object had approached another celestial body. The spacecraft's onboard equipment also revealed it to be the first to photograph the far side of the Moon before impact on a day when the Moon did not have a strong magnetic field or radiation belts. Luna 2 was the first spacecraft to photograph the far side of the Moon before crashing onto its surface on September 15, 1959.

The Soviet Union ended 1959 with the launch of Luna 3 on October 4th to commemorate the second anniversary of the launch of the first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1. The spacecraft orbited the Moon, photographing approximately 70% of the far side. The probe transmitted the images back to Earth via television.

Landing attempt

Phase 2 of the Soviet Union's lunar program involved launching spacecraft into lunar orbit and gently landing them on the surface. Following the success of Luna 3, the country did not conduct any further lunar missions until early 1963. The Soviet Union ended this two-year gap with two Luna probes launched in January and February 1963, respectively, but neither reached Earth orbit. These unnumbered spacecraft were designed to land on the lunar surface. In April 1963, the Soviet Union launched another lander, Luna 4. The spacecraft flew past the Moon at a distance of 8,500 km before entering solar orbit.

These flights were followed by six more failed landing missions over the next 2.5 years. In April 1964, a lunar lander was destroyed during launch. In 1965, the Soviet Union experienced five more failed landings. Cosmos 60 failed to reach orbit in March of that year. Luna 5 crashed into the Moon in May 1965. Its successor, Luna 6, entered solar orbit after veering 160,000 km from the Moon. Luna 7 and Luna 8 crashed onto the celestial body's surface in October and December 1965, respectively.

The Soviet Union's landing attempt finally succeeded in January 1966. Luna 9 became the first spacecraft to make a gentle landing on another celestial body. The 1,581 kg spacecraft launched on January 31, 1966, and landed in the Ocean of Storms on February 3 of the same year. The spacecraft transmitted several medium-resolution images of the lunar surface before its battery failed four days after landing. The lander also transmitted data on radiation levels at the landing site.

Following this mission was another successful landing of the Luna 13 spacecraft, launched on December 21st and landing on December 24th, 1966. The spacecraft sent back to Earth panoramic images and radiation data. The spacecraft was also equipped with two robotic arms used to test the solidity and density of the soil.

In-orbit mission

The Luna spacecraft, another in the second generation, was designed specifically for orbital missions. The Soviet Union successfully launched Luna 10 into lunar orbit on April 3, 1966, making it the first man-made object to orbit another celestial body. The 234 kg spacecraft transmitted measurements of micrometeoroids and radiation during its 56-day mission.

Subsequently, the Soviet Union launched two more orbiters, Luna 11 and Luna 12, in 1966. Luna 11 was launched on August 24th and orbited the Moon at a closest point of 159 km and a furthest point of 1,200 km. Luna 12 was launched on October 22nd and entered an orbit with a closest and furthest point of 100 and 1,740 km, respectively. The spacecraft sent back images of the surface via television. Other successful orbital missions included Luna 14 (April 1968), Luna 19 (September 1971), and Luna 22 (May 1974).

Sample collection and autonomous robot missions

Around the same time as the Zond series of missions (the precursors to manned lunar orbits), Soviet engineers developed a new, advanced lunar landing craft. These sophisticated spacecraft were designed to bring soil and rock samples back to Earth and deploy the Lunokhod rover to explore the surface. In 1969 and 1970, the Soviet Union conducted six flights with this type of spacecraft under the designations Luna or Cosmos. All six launches failed due to technical problems. Luna 15 crashed to the Moon in July 1969, just days after Apollo 11 landed. Experts believe that this was a mission to deploy a rover or bring samples back to Earth before the Apollo 11 crew.

Luna 16, launched on September 12, 1970, was the first successful automated sample delivery mission. After landing in the Sea of Fertility, the spacecraft drilled 35 cm into the surface. A 100 g soil sample was transferred to a return vehicle, which landed in the Soviet Union on September 24 of the same year.

The Lunokhod 1 robot operated on the Moon for 10.5 months. Photo: Autoevolution — The Lunokhod 1 robot operated on the Moon for 10.5 months. Photo: *Autoevolution*

Luna 17 marked the first mission carrying a rover. Launched on November 10, 1970, the spacecraft landed in the Sea of Rains and deployed the Lunokhod 1 rover. This eight-wheeled vehicle was controlled by radio waves from Earth and equipped with two cameras and various other sampling devices. Lunokhod 1 traveled approximately 10.5 km during its 10.5-month mission. The rover's cameras transmitted over 20,000 images, including 200 panoramic views. Its equipment analyzed soil characteristics at over 500 locations. Other instruments analyzed the chemical composition of soil at 25 locations. Lunokhod 1 also carried a rearview mirror that allowed scientists on Earth to conduct laser experiments to determine the distance between Earth and the Moon with an accuracy of 40 cm.

This mission was followed by Luna 18, launched on September 2, 1971. This mission, which collected soil samples, crashed onto the lunar surface. Luna 19, launched 19 days later, successfully entered lunar orbit but was not designed to land.

The Luna 20 spacecraft, launched on February 14, 1972, was a successful sample collection mission. The spacecraft landed in a mountainous region between the Sea of Fertility and the Sea of Crises. The re-entry capsule successfully returned to Earth with 50 grams of lunar soil.

The Luna 21 mission, launched in January 1973, carried the Lunokhod 2 rover to the Le Monnier crater in the Sea of Serenity. The 840 kg rover traveled 37 km during its four-month mission. It took numerous photographs and conducted experiments.

Three Luna spacecraft were subsequently designed to bring soil samples back. Luna 23 was destroyed during landing after launch in October 1974. Another Luna mission launched nearly a year later failed to reach orbit. The most recent mission was Luna 24, which lifted off on August 9, 1976. The spacecraft landed in the southeastern Sea of Crises and drilled to a depth of 2 meters. The spacecraft returned with 170 grams of soil for analysis.

First lunar mission in 47 years

The Luna 25 spacecraft failed to land on the lunar surface as planned. Photo: Money Control — The Luna 25 spacecraft failed to land on the lunar surface as planned. Photo: *Money Control*

Luna 25 is Russia's first lunar mission in 47 years. If successful, Luna 25 will lay the foundation for future automated lunar exploration missions by Roscosmos. The spacecraft was launched on August 10, 2023, from the Vostochny Cosmodrome on a Soyuz-2 Fregat rocket. On August 16, the spacecraft reached the Moon and fired its engines to enter orbit. According to the schedule, it will remain in orbit for 5-7 days before landing on the lunar surface. The spacecraft's objective is to study the lunar south pole, researching the composition of the polar soil layer and studying plasma and dust composition in the outer layers of the celestial body for a year.

However, on August 20, the Russian space agency Roscosmos announced that the Luna 25 spacecraft crashed onto the surface of the Moon after spinning out of control and flying in an unpredictable orbit. Roscosmos has established a special internal committee to investigate the cause behind the failure of Luna 25, a mission that marked Russia's return to the race to the Moon.

An Khang (According to Astro/LPI/NASA )

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